Tumor-derived small extracellular vesicles or exosomes which carry the checkpoint PD-L1 are directly involved in immune evasion and uncontrolled tumor growth. We have recently reported that PD-L1 is also enriched on Wharton’s Jelly Mesenchymal Stromal Cell (WJMSC)-associated exosomes.

AD is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by progressive cognitive impairment, behavioral changes, memory loss and executive dysfunction, all of which present serious threats to the health of older people.

The present Commentary is a critical follow-up of a previous review about “Extracellular vesicles, news about their role in immune cells: physiology, pathology and diseases”, appeared in Clinical and Experimental Immunology last June 2019 [1].

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are emerging as a key mediator of intercellular communication as well as a major mechanism of functional reprogramming of cells in disease. All cells produce EVs, which freely circulate and are found in all body fluids. EVs are heterogenous, consisting of subsets of vesicles with different sizes, distinct origins, and various functions (Figure 1). They mediate a broad variety of biological events ranging from cellular activation, inflammation, blood coagulation, angiogenesis, cellular transport, and others.

Environmental enrichment produces beneficial effects in the brain at genetic, molecular, cellular and behavior levels, and has long been studied as a therapeutic intervention for a wide variety of neurological disorders. However, the complexity of applying a robust environmental enrichment paradigm makes clinical use difficult. Accordingly, there has been increased interest in developing environmental enrichment mimetics, also known as enviromimetics.